Interactive

Antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance – a timeline

Antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance – a timeline

  • Discovery and use of antimicrobials
  • Scientific discoveries
  • Antimicrobial resistance develops
1877
1877
Antibiosis described

Public domain, copyright expired

Antibiosis, a biological process where one organism inhibits the growth of another, is observed by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. They observe that microbes can secrete material to kill certain bacteria.

Image: Painting of Louis Pasteur by Albert Edelfelt.

1900
1900
Search begins for chemicals with antibiotics

Wellcome Images, CC BY 4.0

During the late 1800s, German physician and scientist Paul Ehrlich begins to systematically search for a chemical agent that will selectively kill bacteria, leaving humans unharmed. His search comes to fruition in 1907 with the synthesis of the arsenic-containing organic molecule arsphenamine, which has activity against the causative agent of syphilis (Treponema pallidum).

Image: A Salvarsan treatment kit for syphilis, Germany, 1909–1912.

1910
1910
First synthetic antimicrobial used in humans

Paul Ehrlich develops the first antimicrobial treatment used to treat humans – Salvarsan. It has severe side-effects, partly because it contains arsenic, a poison.

1928
1928
Penicillin discovered

Public domain

Alexander Fleming discovers the first modern antibiotic. He observes that the growth of the Staphylococcus aureus bacteria living in Petri dishes is inhibited by substances produced by the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum. This leads to the creation of the first antibiotic, penicillin.

Image: Professor Alexander Fleming in his laboratory at St Mary's, Paddington, London in 1943.

1928
Resistance identified

Some bacteria become resistant to the antimicrobial Salvarsen.

1930
1930
Sulphonamides discovered

Sulphonamides are a group of synthetic antibacterial medicines. They are the first truly effective, broad-spectrum antimicrobials used for treating infection in humans and animals. They are still in use today but were largely superseded by the discovery of penicillin.

1933
1933
Introduction of antibiotic use in animals

Antibiotics are initially used to only treat sick animals. Later, it is discovered they can be used to promote growth.

1933
More resistance appears

Certain bacteria become resistant to sulphonamides.

1940
1940
Soil bacteria testing for antibiotic properties

Soil bacteria testing for antibiotic properties begins in the 1940s, when researchers discover naturally occurring antimicrobials like streptomycin and cephalosporins from soil microbes. This leads to the discovery of many major antibiotic families that we know today.

1943
1943
Penicillin approved for clinical use in humans

Public domain

US scientists optimise penicillin production via fermentation and are able to produce enough for the Allied Armed Forces.

Image: World War II poster extolling the use of penicillin.

1943
Streptomycin discovered

Streptomycin is the first antibiotic to be successful against tuberculosis.

1944
1944
Golden age of antibiotics

Public domain

The discovery of natural product antibiotics peaks in the mid-1950s – including streptomycin, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, vancomycin and methicillin. Most of the antibiotics discovered in this ‘golden age’ – 1944 to 1966 – are still in use, but their effectiveness has been eroded by antimicrobial resistance. The rapid and relatively easy discovery of natural product antibiotics during a relatively short period leads to the excessive use of these drugs. 

Image: X-ray of a patient diagnosed with tuberculosis.

1944
Penicillin resistance identified

Public domain

Shortly after the introduction of penicillin, resistance is identified in the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, a common cause of serious infection in people and animals.

Image: Scanning electron micrograph of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria (yellow) and a dead human white blood cell (coloured red). National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)/NIH, released into the public domain.

1948
1948
First antibiotic licensed for use in animal feeds

In the United States, the antibiotic sulfaquinoxaline becomes the first antibiotic to be routinely administered in poultry feed to prevent disease.

1950
1950
Antibiotics used to promote animal growth and prevent plant disease

During the 1950s, antibiotics are first used as growth promoters in animal feed. Horticultural sprays of antibiotics are used to combat disease in fruit trees.

1960
1960
Antibiotic use increasing in global food production

In the 1960s, antibiotics are widely used to promote growth in farm animals. Some countries restrict veterinary prescription of medically important antibiotics and warn of the risk of antibiotic resistance.

1961
1961
Methicillin resistance identified in the bacteria <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>

The resistant bacteria are described as MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). These bacteria are resistant to all antibiotics in the penicillin class of antibiotics so infection is difficult to treat.

1986
1986
Vancomycin resistance identified in the bacteria <i>Enterococcus</i>

Vancomycin-resistant gram-positive bacteria can become resistant to all antibiotics.

1987
1987
Lipopeptides discovered

The last class of clinically used antibiotics is discovered. 

1990
1990
Resistance to different antibiotics continues to emerge

Public domain

Resistance to common antimicrobial drugs increases, and readily treatable infections are becoming increasingly challenging to manage.

Read about the presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in New Zealand in the article Is the post-antibiotic era now here? 

Image: Two Petri dish culture plates growing bacteria in the presence of discs containing various antibiotics.

1997
1997
Some countries restrict use of growth-promoting antibiotics

The European Union bans the use of certain antibiotics used as growth promoters in animals.

2002
2002
New Zealand bans use of antibiotics as growth promoters

Concerns about the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the potential impact on human health lead to a ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal feed in New Zealand. The ban applies to all antibiotics that pose an antimicrobial resistance risk to animals or humans.

2015
2015
Global AMR emergency declared

Antimicrobial resistance is declared a global emergency by the World Health Organization. The World Health Assembly adopts a global action plan on AMR.

Read about the first global report on antimicrobial resistance.

2023
2023
2023 onwards

In just over 100 years, antibiotics have drastically changed modern medicine and extended the average human lifespan by 23 years. The dangers of a post-antibiotic era have prompted policy makers to acknowledge this threat to human health. Appropriate use of antibiotics and preventing infection by vaccination and good hygiene are critical.

2500
2500 BC
Ancient civilisations use antimicrobials in medicine

Humans have been using medicines since prehistoric times to treat various ailments – primarily herbs and other natural substances with healing properties. Ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians, Greeks and Chinese develop sophisticated medical systems that rely heavily on plant-based remedies.

This timeline traces the development of antimicrobials – specifically antibiotics – and antimicrobial resistance.

Discovery and use of antimicrobials

Humans have used traditional medicines to treat infections for thousands of years, but the discovery of antibiotics at the beginning of the 20th century revolutionised healthcare and the treatment of infections.

Scientific discoveries

Once antibiotics were discovered, there was a ‘golden age’ of antibiotic discovery, which lasted into the 1960s. During this time, half of the antibiotics commonly used today were discovered.

Antimicrobial resistance develops

Like other living organisms, bacteria have the ability to adapt and change to new environments and challenges. This includes evolving ways to become resistant to the effects of antibiotics. Soon after antibiotics started being used, bacteria developed resistance to those antibiotics and shared their resistance with other bacteria.

Transcript

Discovery and use of antimicrobials

Humans have used traditional medicines to treat infections for thousands of years, but the discovery of antibiotics at the beginning of the 20th century revolutionised healthcare and the treatment of infections.

2500 BC – Ancient civilisations use antimicrobials in medicine

Humans have been using medicines since prehistoric times to treat various ailments – primarily herbs and other natural substances with healing properties. Ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians, Greeks and Chinese develop sophisticated medical systems that rely heavily on plant-based remedies.

1900 – Search begins for chemicals with antibiotics

During the late 1800s, German physician and scientist Paul Ehrlich begins to systematically search for a chemical agent that will selectively kill bacteria, leaving humans unharmed. His search comes to fruition in 1907 with the synthesis of the arsenic-containing organic molecule arsphenamine, which has activity against the causative agent of syphilis (Treponema pallidum).

Image: A Salvarsan treatment kit for syphilis, Germany, 1909–1912. Wellcome Images, CC BY 4.0.

1933 – Introduction of antibiotic use in animals

Antibiotics are initially used to only treat sick animals. Later, it is discovered they can be used to promote growth.

1943 – Penicillin approved for clinical use in humans 

US scientists optimise penicillin production via fermentation and are able to produce enough for the Allied Armed Forces.

Image: World War II poster extolling the use of penicillin.

1940 – Soil bacteria testing for antibiotic properties

Soil bacteria testing for antibiotic properties begins in the 1940s, when researchers discover naturally occurring antimicrobials like streptomycin and cephalosporins from soil microbes. This leads to the discovery of many major antibiotic families that we know today.

1948 – First antibiotic licensed for use in animal feeds

In the United States, the antibiotic sulfaquinoxaline becomes the first antibiotic to be routinely administered in poultry feed to prevent disease.

1950 – Antibiotics used to promote animal growth and prevent plant disease

During the 1950s, antibiotics are first used as growth promoters in animal feed. Horticultural sprays of antibiotics are used to combat disease in fruit trees.

1960 – Antibiotic use increasing in global food production

In the 1960s, antibiotics are widely used to promote growth in farm animals. Some countries restrict veterinary prescription of medically important antibiotics and warn of the risk of antibiotic resistance.

1997 – Some countries restrict use of growth-promoting antibiotics

The European Union bans the use of certain antibiotics used as growth promoters in animals.

2002 – New Zealand bans use of antibiotics as growth promoters

Concerns about the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the potential impact on human health lead to a ban on the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in animal feed in New Zealand. The ban applies to all antibiotics that pose an antimicrobial resistance risk to animals or humans.

2023 – 2023 onwards

In just over 100 years, antibiotics have drastically changed modern medicine and extended the average human lifespan by 23 years. The dangers of a post-antibiotic era have prompted policy makers to acknowledge this threat to human health. Appropriate use of antibiotics and preventing infection by vaccination and good hygiene are critical.

Scientific discoveries

Once antibiotics were discovered, there was a ‘golden age’ of antibiotic discovery, which lasted into the 1960s. During this time, half of the antibiotics commonly used today were discovered.

1877 – Antibiosis described

Antibiosis, a biological process where one organism inhibits the growth of another, is observed by Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. They observe that microbes can secrete material to kill certain bacteria.

Image: Painting of Louis Pasteur by Albert Edelfelt.

1910 – First synthetic antimicrobial used in humans

Paul Ehrlich develops the first antimicrobial treatment used to treat humans – Salvarsan. It has severe side-effects, partly because it contains arsenic, a poison.

1928 – Penicillin discovered

Alexander Fleming discovers the first modern antibiotic. He observes that the growth of the Staphylococcus aureus bacteria living in Petri dishes is inhibited by substances produced by the fungus Penicillium chrysogenum. This leads to the creation of the first antibiotic, penicillin.

Image: Professor Alexander Fleming in his laboratory at St Mary's, Paddington, London in 1943.

1930 – Sulphonamides discovered

Sulphonamides are a group of synthetic antibacterial medicines. They are the first truly effective, broad-spectrum antimicrobials used for treating infection in humans and animals. They are still in use today but were largely superseded by the discovery of penicillin.

1943 – Streptomycin discovered

Streptomycin is the first antibiotic to be successful against tuberculosis.

1944 – Golden age of antibiotics

The discovery of natural product antibiotics peaks in the mid-1950s – including streptomycin, cephalosporins, tetracyclines, vancomycin and methicillin. Most of the antibiotics discovered in this ‘golden age’ – 1944 to 1966 – are still in use, but their effectiveness has been eroded by antimicrobial resistance. The rapid and relatively easy discovery of natural product antibiotics during a relatively short period leads to the excessive use of these drugs.

Image: X-ray of a patient diagnosed with tuberculosis.

1987 – Lipopeptides discovered

The last class of clinically used antibiotics is discovered.

Antimicrobial resistance develops

Like other living organisms, bacteria have the ability to adapt and change to new environments and challenges. This includes evolving ways to become resistant to the effects of antibiotics. Soon after antibiotics started being used, bacteria developed resistance to those antibiotics and shared their resistance with other bacteria.

1928 – Resistance identified

Some bacteria become resistant to the antimicrobial Salvarsen.

1933 – More resistance appears

Certain bacteria become resistant to sulphonamides.

1944 – Penicillin resistance identified

Shortly after the introduction of penicillin, resistance is identified in the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, a common cause of serious infection in people and animals.

Image: Scanning electron micrograph of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteria (yellow) and a dead human white blood cell (coloured red). National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID)/NIH, released into the public domain.

1961 – Methicillin resistance identified in the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus

The resistant bacteria are described as MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). These bacteria are resistant to all antibiotics in the penicillin class of antibiotics so infection is difficult to treat.

1986 – Vancomycin resistance identified in the bacteria  Enterococcus

Vancomycin-resistant gram-positive bacteria can become resistant to all antibiotics.

1990 – Resistance to different antibiotics continues to emerge

Resistance to common antimicrobial drugs increases, and readily treatable infections are becoming increasingly challenging to manage.

Read about the presence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in New Zealand in the article Is the post-antibiotic era now here?

Image: Two Petri dish culture plates growing bacteria in the presence of discs containing various antibiotics.

2015  – Global AMR emergency declared

Antimicrobial resistance is declared a global emergency by the World Health Organization. The World Health Assembly adopts a global action plan on AMR.

Read about the first global report on antimicrobial resistance.

Acknowledgment

This interactive has been developed in partnership with New Zealand Food Safety.

Rights: Ministry for Primary Industries and New Zealand Food Safety

Ministry for Primary Industries and New Zealand Food Safety logos

Ministry for Primary Industries + New Zealand Food Safety logos

Ministry for Primary Industries and New Zealand Food Safety logos

Rights: Ministry for Primary Industries and New Zealand Food Safety
Rights: The University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato
Published:20 July 2023