1080 and pest control – a timeline
1080 and pest control – a timeline
- Introduced pest mammals
- 1080 as pest control
- Advances in science and technology
Kiore and kurī
Kiore (Pacific rats) and kurī (dogs) arrive in the canoes of the first Polynesian explorers. Kiore contribute to the extinction or reduction of several native species including giant wētā, snails and the New Zealand snipe.
Norway rats
Norway rats arrive on the ships of some of the first European explorers. The rats quickly disperse and spread.
Cats
James Cook’s ship cat is the first cat to kill native birds.
Brushtail possums
Image licensed through 123RF Limited
The Australian brushtail possum is deliberately introduced to establish a fur trade, but efforts are unsuccessful.
Rabbits
Rabbits are introduced for food and sport.
Hares
Hares are introduced to Canterbury for food and sport.
Red deer
Matthew Gibson, 123RF Ltd
The first of about 1,000 British red deer are released in the South Island for game hunting.
Southland possums
Possums are successfully established in Southland in order to establish a fur trade.
Ship rats
Photograph by Jason Froggatt, Auckland War Memorial Museum
Introduced during earlier visits, ship rats are now established across New Zealand.
This image provides a comparison of rat species in New Zealand. From left to right – Norway rat, ship rat, kiore and house mouse.
Red deer
Red deer are released into the North Island.
Hedgehogs
Image of European Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, collected 1 December 1932, Taita, Wellington, New Zealand. Gift of Frederick Westbury, 1933. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Te Papa (LM001417)
The European hedgehog is introduced to eat slugs, snails and grubs.
Ferrets
Ferrets are introduced to control rabbits and hares. They immediately spread into the bush.
Stoats
Stoats are introduced to control rabbits and hares. Scientists, including ornithologist Walter Butler, warn of the danger to native birds.
Hedgehogs exchanged for weka
Christchurch man imports 12 hedgehogs in exchange for 12 weka. The hedgehogs escape on their first night ashore.
Monofluroacetate synthesised
Public domain
Belgian chemist Frédéric Swarts first synthesises monofluoroacetate in the lab.
Image shows Frédéric with other attendees at the Solvay Conference on Chemistry in 1922.
Wapiti gifted
US President Theodore Roosevelt gives wapiti deer as a gift to the country. They are released in Fiordland.
Impact of deer
Red deer in a paddock in the Wairarapa. Ref: 1/2-000268-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23081433
Large herds are reported to be overgrazing pasture and native forests, causing erosion and flooding.
Monofluoroacetate patented
Monofluoroacetate is patented in Germany as an insecticide/moth repellent. (At this time, the chemical naming protocol requires the first element of a compound to be numbered. There is one sodium atom in the compound, so it is called monofluoroacetate. The protocol has since changed, so mono is no longer used.)
Possums spread
A rare image of a rat and a possum taking chicks from a nest, courtesy of Ngā Manu Images.
Possums have now been released in 450 locations around the country.
Deer menace
Deer hunters camp at Camerons Flat, and antlers. Ref: PAColl-6208-41. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22729288
The Deer Menace Conference takes place in Christchurch. Government deer culling begins soon after.
1080 ‘named’
US Fish and Wildlife Service refers to fluoroacetate by its laboratory catalogue number – 1080. It is first used in the US as a rodenticide to control rats and mice and later used to control coyotes and other predatory mammals on government-owned land.
Possums declared pests
Possums are classified as pests because of the damage they cause in native forests. All protections are removed.
Possum bounty scheme
Two possum trappers with a day’s catch from the Lake Waikaremoana district. Ref: PAColl-8983-05. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22833760
A bounty scheme runs for 10 years – 8 million possums are trapped and killed, mostly from accessible locations.
New Zealand trials
Evening Post (Newspaper. 1865-2002): Photographic negatives and prints of the Evening Post newspaper. Ref: EP/1957/2393-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22621780
New Zealand tests the efficacy of 1080 for mammalian pest control using both ground-based and aerial applications. Its usage becomes widespread by 1957. Small amounts of 1080 are added to a variety of baits including cereal pellets, chopped carrot and gel baits.
This image is of carrots being bagged in 1957 for use with 1080 bait.
Use in South Africa
1080 is used in South Africa to target jackals, moles and baboons.
Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa
Photo copyright of Brian Bell and sourced from The legacy of Big South Cape: Rat irruption to rat eradication. Elizabeth Bell, Brian D. Bell and Don V. Merton. January 2016. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 40(2): 212–218.
Ship rats are accidentally introduced on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa (off Rakiura/Stewart Island) and quickly wipe out seven native species including birds, a bat and an insect. Other species are impacted but not eliminated.
Learn more in Big South Cape: an invasion, a rescue and an eradication.
Image of damage by ship rats to the Waitiri family muttonbird hut on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa, April 1964.
Bovine tuberculosis
A vet makes the link between bovine tuberculosis and possums. Research confirms the link in 1971. Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that affects the lungs and airways.
United States cancels the use of 1080
Lawsuits prompt the US Government to review the use of toxins to control predators on government-owned land. As a result, the Environmental Protection Agency cancels the registration of 1080, sodium cyanide, strychnine and thallium sulfate.
Reduced funding for TB possum control
Curbing possum numbers for TB control is initially very successful, so funding and operations are reduced. As a result of reduced control, areas where wild animals have bovine TB increase from 8 to 15. Infected herd numbers rise to pre-control levels.
Cinnamon oil
Cinnamon oil is added to baits. The smell is offensive to birds but attractive to possums.
United States reinstates 1080 use
The US Environmental Protection Agency registers 1080 for use in livestock protection collars. The collar has a pouch of 1080 solution, which ruptures when a coyote attempts to kill a sheep or goat by biting its throat. Only coyotes that attack livestock are killed.
GPS navigation
petervick16, licensed through 123RF Ltd
The first GPS navigation systems guide aerial fertiliser applications. 1080 operators are quick to adopt the technology.
Video evidence
Video shows possums eating kōkako eggs and chicks. Prior to this, possums were assumed to be vegetarian.
Continued bait research
Using non-toxic baits, research finds that some bird species still sample green cinnamon baits.
Tree wētā study
Andy Heyward, licensed through 123RF Ltd.
In a lab study, tree wētā fed doses of 1080 survive, with 67% of the toxin being excreted within hours.
Biocontrol options
University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato
A paper in the New Zealand Journal of Zoology outlines several options to biologically control possums, including using parasitic worms, hormone-toxins and vaccines.
Lower bait concentration
Research shows that less bait is needed. The concentration drops from 20 kg bait/ha down to 5 kg bait/ha and eventually to 2–3 kg bait/ha.
Bait pre-feeding
1080:The Facts
Non-toxic pre-feeds are now standard practice. Eating safe, pleasant-tasting baits encourages rats and possums to seek out the poisoned baits when they are dropped.
Diagram of pre-feeding benefits courtesy of http://www.1080facts.co.nz/the-science-of-how-1080-works.html.
Blue dye added
Trials show most bird species do not eat blue food items but possums do. Blue dye is added to green baits.
Bait flow sensors
Sensors and video recordings help aerial operators to achieve more evenly spread bait coverage.
Managing the spread of bovine TB
Graham Nugent, Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, CC-BY 4.0
Over 300 New Zealand cattle herds are infected with bovine TB. By 2015, the number is reduced to less than 50 herds.
A fatal curiosity is how TB could have spread from an infected possum (with pus on its fur) to cattle.
Aquatic creatures
NIWA scientists place 10 times the usual 1080 concentration in a stream. Samplings show no biological impacts to aquatic organisms.
Wallaby cull
Tasmania uses 1080 to kill 200,000 wallabies on King Island.
Soil organisms
Andreas Thomsen CC 3.0
Landcare Research scientists expose a range of soil organisms to doses of 1080. Any 1080-related effects happen at levels well above those measured in soil following a 1080 operation.
This images shows a tiger worm (Eisenia fetida) and on the right a cocoon.
Drinking water
University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato
New Zealand’s Ministry of Health adopts water standards, with a provisional maximum acceptable value (PMVA) of 3.5 ppb 1080 but recommends drinking water be less than 2 ppb.
ERMA reassessment
New Zealand’s Environmental Risk Management Authority judges that the benefits of 1080 outweigh adverse effects but recommends tighter controls.
New Zealand horse deaths
An aerial 1080 drop near Tūrangi leaves four horses dead and three sick when the operator fails to advise the owner to move the horses.
Carrot baits stopped
Department of Conservation
New Zealand’s Department of Conservation stops using carrot baits. Although dyed bright green, they are still attractive to some non-target species like kākā.
SowLow bucket
Morgan, David. (2015). Maximising the effectiveness of aerial 1080 control of possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). 10.13140/2.1.3354.9607.
A new 1080 bait bucket delivery design increases the effectiveness of aerial operations.
Biocontrol research finishes
Research into possum contraceptive vaccines and hormone toxin projects ends. Much has been learned about possum reproduction, but practical control methods have not been achieved.
Self-resetting traps
Goodnature trap, Annie Dick, CC BY-SA 4.0
Conservation groups trial self-resetting traps and provide feedback to refine the traps and lures. The aim is to reduce the need for people to check and reset traps between kills.
Red fox eradication
Tasmania uses 1080 to eradicate red foxes from the state.
Whio success
Bubs Smith
Whio (blue duck) fledgling numbers triple after aerial and ground control operations in Tongariro National Park in the central North Island.
PCE report
Dr Jan Wright, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, releases a report evaluating the use of 1080. She says it is effective and safe and New Zealand should use more of it.
Tahr damage
Department of Conservation, CC BY 4.0
Department of Conservation photos reveal grazing impacts of tahr on native vegetation.
Image is of Zora Creek, Landsborough, before tahr impacts 2003 (left) and after tahr impacts 2012.
Large beech mast
Large beech seed events in the South Island lead to a boom in pest numbers. Increased aerial 1080 drops are effective in stopping rat plagues.
Kea deaths
The Department of Conservation reports that 24 radio-tagged kea died as a result of aerial operations between 2008 and 2014. Kea deaths are confined to just six of the pest control sites. Experts think kea that are exposed to human activity and food are at greater risk of poisoning as they are more likely to try new foods.
Biological Heritage NSC
New Zealand’s Biological Heritage National Science Challenge
Launch of New Zealand’s Biological Heritage Ngā Koiora Tuku Iho National Science Challenge. Research will cover biosecurity and management.
Kōkako success
Matt Binns, CC BY 2.0
The kōkako population in the Mangatutu Ecological Area (south of Hamilton) grows by 700% after four 1080 drops over 16 years.
This image is of a North Island kōkako (Callaeas wilsoni).
No kea deaths
The Department of Conservation reports that there were no kea deaths from it's 2016 Battle for our Birds aerial operation.
Sika deer released
Sika deer are illegally released into north Taranaki conservation forest. Wild deer are major pests on public conservation lands.
Gene editing
Royal Society Te Apārangi
The Royal Society Te Apārangi releases documents exploring the use of gene editing for pest control of possums, rats and stoats.
Cattle deaths
Eight cattle die after entering a 1080 operational area via a broken fence.
South Island robins
Research published in 2021 notes the positive nesting success of South Island robins after aerial 1080 drops significantly reduced ship rat populations.
This timeline traces the introduction of pest mammal species to New Zealand, the use of 1080 for pest control and how advances in science and technology have improved how we use it.
Introduced pest mammals
Early settlers brought animals to New Zealand for food, fur, sport and sometimes by accident. In the absence of natural predators, many of these mammals became pest species that impact native ecosystems and kill native species.
1080 as pest control
1080 is a poison that targets mammals. It is the most regulated form of pest control in New Zealand.
Advances in science and technology
Decades of research have improved our understanding of 1080’s environmental impacts. Technological advances have increased the safety, efficiency and precision of 1080 operations. New technologies also provide targeted and more humane means of pest control.
Transcript
Introduced pest mammals
1250 – Kiore and kurī
Kiore (Pacific rats) and kurī (dogs) arrive in the canoes of the first Polynesian explorers. Kiore contribute to the extinction or reduction of several native species including giant wētā, snails and the New Zealand snipe.
1772 – Norway rats
Norway rats arrive on the ships of some of the first European explorers. The rats quickly disperse and spread.
Image courtesy of Ngā Manu Images
1773 – Cats
James Cook’s ship cat is the first cat to kill native birds.
1837 – Brushtail possums
The Australian brushtail possum is deliberately introduced to establish a fur trade, but efforts are unsuccessful.
Image licensed through 123RF Limited
1838 – Rabbits
Rabbits are introduced for food and sport.
1851 – Hares
Hares are introduced to Canterbury for food and sport.
1851 – Red deer
The first of about 1,000 British red deer are released in the South Island for game hunting.
1858 – Southland possums
Possums are successfully established in Southland in order to establish a fur trade.
1860 – Ship rats
Introduced during earlier visits, ship rats are now established across New Zealand.
Image: Comparison of rat species in New Zealand. From left to right – Norway rat, ship rat, kiore and house mouse.
Photograph by Jason Froggatt, courtesy Auckland War-Memorial Museum.
1863 – Red deer
Red deer are released into the North Island.
1870 – Hedgehogs
The European hedgehog is introduced to eat slugs, snails and grubs.
Image of European Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, collected 1 December 1932, Taita, Wellington, New Zealand. Gift of Frederick Westbury, 1933. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Te Papa (LM001417)
1879 – Ferrets
Ferrets are introduced to control rabbits and hares. They immediately spread into the bush.
1884 – Stoats
Stoats are introduced to control rabbits and hares. Scientists, including ornithologist Walter Butler, warn of the danger to native birds.
Image courtesy of Ngā Manu Images
1894 – Hedgehogs exchanged for weka
Christchurch man imports 12 hedgehogs in exchange for 12 weka. The hedgehogs escape on their first night ashore.
1905 – Wapiti gifted
US President Theodore Roosevelt gives wapiti deer as a gift to the country. They are released in Fiordland.
1910 – Impact of deer
Large herds are reported to be overgrazing pasture and native forests, causing erosion and flooding.
Image: Red deer in a paddock in the Wairarapa. Ref: 1/2-000268-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23081433
1930 – Possums spread
Possums have now been released in 450 locations around the country.
A rare image of a rat and a possum taking chicks from a nest, courtesy of Ngā Manu Images
1930 – Deer menace
The Deer Menace Conference takes place in Christchurch. Government deer culling begins soon after.
Image: Deer hunters camp at Camerons Flat, and antlers. Ref: PAColl-6208-41. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22729288
1946 – Possums declared pests
Possums are classified as pests because of the damage they cause in native forests. All protections are removed.
Image: Two possum trappers with a day’s catch from the Lake Waikaremoana district. Ref: PAColl-8983-05. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22833760
1951 – Possum bounty scheme
A bounty scheme runs for 10 years – 8 million possums are trapped and killed, mostly from accessible locations.
1964 – Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa
Ship rats are accidentally introduced on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa (off Rakiura/Stewart Island) and quickly wipe out seven native species including birds, a bat and an insect. Other species are impacted but not eliminated.
Learn more in Big South Cape: an invasion, a rescue and an eradication.
Image of damage by ship rats to the Waitiri family muttonbird hut on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa, April 1964.
Photo copyright of Brian Bell and sourced from The legacy of Big South Cape: Rat irruption to rat eradication. Elizabeth Bell, Brian D. Bell and Don V. Merton. January 2016. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 40(2): 212–218.
1993 – Video evidence
Video shows possums eating kōkako eggs and chicks. Prior to this, possums were assumed to be vegetarian.
Image courtesy of Ngā Manu Images
2012 – Tahr damage
Department of Conservation photos reveal grazing impacts of tahr on native vegetation.
Image is of Zora Creek, Landsborough, before tahr impacts 2003 (left) and after tahr impacts 2012.
Department of Conservation, CC BY 4.0
2017 – Sika deer released
Sika deer are illegally released into north Taranaki conservation forest. Wild deer are major pests on public conservation lands.
1080 as pest control
1080 is a poison that targets mammals. It is the most regulated form of pest control in New Zealand.
1927 – Monofluoroacetate patented
Monofluoroacetate is patented in Germany as an insecticide/moth repellent. (At this time, the chemical naming protocol requires the first element of a compound to be numbered. There is one sodium atom in the compound, so it is called monofluoroacetate. The protocol has since changed, so mono is no longer used.)
1944 – 1080 ‘named’
US Fish and Wildlife Service refers to fluoroacetate by its laboratory catalogue number – 1080. It is first used in the US as a rodenticide to control rats and mice and later used to control coyotes and other predatory mammals on government-owned land.
1954 – New Zealand trials
New Zealand tests the efficacy of 1080 for mammalian pest control using both ground-based and aerial applications. Its usage becomes widespread by 1957. Small amounts of 1080 are added to a variety of baits including cereal pellets, chopped carrot and gel baits.
Image: Bagging carrots in 1957 for use with 1080 bait.
Evening Post (Newspaper. 1865-2002): Photographic negatives and prints of the Evening Post newspaper. Ref: EP/1957/2393-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22621780
1961 – Use in South Africa
1080 is used in South Africa to target jackals, moles and baboons.
1972 – United States cancels the use of 1080
Lawsuits prompt the US Government to review the use of toxins to control predators on government-owned land. As a result, the Environmental Protection Agency cancels the registration of 1080, sodium cyanide, strychnine and thallium sulfate.
1979 – Reduced funding for TB possum control
Curbing possum numbers for TB control is initially very successful, so funding and operations are reduced. As a result of reduced control, areas where wild animals have bovine TB increase from 8 to 15. Infected herd numbers rise to pre-control levels.
1985 – United States reinstates 1080 use
The US Environmental Protection Agency registers 1080 for use in livestock protection collars. The collar has a pouch of 1080 solution, which ruptures when a coyote attempts to kill a sheep or goat by biting its throat. Only coyotes that attack livestock are killed.
2003 – Managing the spread of bovine TB
Over 300 New Zealand cattle herds are infected with bovine TB. By 2015, the number is reduced to less than 50 herds.
Image: A fatal curiosity; how TB could spread from an infected possum (with pus on its fur) to cattle. Graham Nugent, Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, CC-BY 4.0
2005 – Wallaby cull
Tasmania uses 1080 to kill 200,000 wallabies on King Island.
2007 – New Zealand horse deaths
An aerial 1080 drop near Tūrangi leaves four horses dead and three sick when the operator fails to advise the owner to move the horses.
2008 – Carrot baits stopped
New Zealand’s Department of Conservation stops using carrot baits. Although dyed bright green, they are still attractive to some non-target species like kākā.
Image courtesy of the Department of Conservation
2011 – Red fox eradication
Tasmania uses 1080 to eradicate red foxes from the state.
2011 – Whio success
Whio (blue duck) fledgling numbers triple after aerial and ground control operations in Tongariro National Park in the central North Island.
Image courtesy of Bubs Smith
2014 – Large beech mast
Large beech seed events in the South Island lead to a boom in pest numbers. Increased aerial 1080 drops are effective in stopping rat plagues.
2014 – Kea deaths
The Department of Conservation reports that 24 radio-tagged kea died as a result of aerial operations between 2008 and 2014. Kea deaths are confined to just six of the pest control sites. Experts think kea that are exposed to human activity and food are at greater risk of poisoning as they are more likely to try new foods.
2015 – Kōkako success
The kōkako population in the Mangatutu Ecological Area (south of Hamilton) grows by 700% after four 1080 drops over 16 years.
Image: North Island kōkako (Callaeas wilsoni), Matt Binns, CC BY 2.0
2016 – No kea deaths
The Department of Conservation reports that there were no kea deaths from it's 2016 Battle for our Birds aerial operation.
2018 – Cattle deaths
Eight cattle die after entering a 1080 operational area via a broken fence.
2021 – South Island robins
Research published in 2021 notes the positive nesting success of South Island robins after aerial 1080 drops significantly reduced ship rat populations.
Advances in science and technology
1896 – Monofluroacetate synthesised
Belgian chemist Frédéric Swarts first synthesises monofluoroacetate in the lab.
Image: Frédéric Swarts with other attendees at the Solvay Conference on Chemistry in 1922. Public domain.
1967 – Bovine tuberculosis
A vet makes the link between bovine tuberculosis and possums. Research confirms the link in 1971. Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that affects the lungs and airways.
1983 – Cinnamon oil
Cinnamon oil is added to baits. The smell is offensive to birds but attractive to possums.
1989 – GPS navigation
The first GPS navigation systems guide aerial fertiliser applications. 1080 operators are quick to adopt the technology.
Image: petervick16, licensed through 123RF Ltd.
1993 – Continued bait research
Using non-toxic baits, research finds that some bird species still sample green cinnamon baits.
1993 – Tree wētā study
In a lab study, tree wētā fed doses of 1080 survive, with 67% of the toxin being excreted within hours.
Image courtesy of Andy Heyward, licensed through 123RF Ltd.
1993 – Biocontrol options
A paper in the New Zealand Journal of Zoology outlines several options to biologically control possums, including using parasitic worms, hormone-toxins and vaccines.
Image: University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato
1993 – Lower bait concentration
Research shows that less bait is needed. The concentration drops from 20 kg bait/ha down to 5 kg bait/ha and eventually to 2–3 kg bait/ha.
1998 – Bait pre-feeding
Non-toxic pre-feeds are now standard practice. Eating safe, pleasant-tasting baits encourages rats and possums to seek out the poisoned baits when they are dropped.
Diagram of pre-feeding benefits courtesy of http://www.1080facts.co.nz/the-science-of-how-1080-works.html.
1999 – Blue dye added
Trials show most bird species do not eat blue food items but possums do. Blue dye is added to green baits.
2002 – Bait flow sensors
Sensors and video recordings help aerial operators to achieve more evenly spread bait coverage.
2004 – Aquatic creatures
NIWA scientists place 10 times the usual 1080 concentration in a stream. Samplings show no biological impacts to aquatic organisms.
2005 – Soil organisms
Landcare Research scientists expose a range of soil organisms to doses of 1080. Any 1080-related effects happen at levels well above those measured in soil following a 1080 operation.
Image of tiger worm (Eisenia fetida) and cocoon courtesy of Andreas Thomsen CC 3.0
2005 – Drinking water
New Zealand’s Ministry of Health adopts water standards, with a provisional maximum acceptable value (PMVA) of 3.5 ppb 1080 but recommends drinking water be less than 2 ppb.
Image: University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato
2005 – ERMA reassessment
New Zealand’s Environmental Risk Management Authority judges that the benefits of 1080 outweigh adverse effects but recommends tighter controls.
2009 – SowLow bucket
A new 1080 bait bucket delivery design increases the effectiveness of aerial operations.
Morgan, David. (2015). Maximising the effectiveness of aerial 1080 control of possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). 10.13140/2.1.3354.9607.
2010 – Biocontrol research finishes
Research into possum contraceptive vaccines and hormone toxin projects ends. Much has been learned about possum reproduction, but practical control methods have not been achieved.
2010 – Self-resetting traps
Conservation groups trial self-resetting traps and provide feedback to refine the traps and lures. The aim is to reduce the need for people to check and reset traps between kills.
IMAGE: Goodnature trap, Annie Dick, CC BY-SA 4.0
2011 – PCE report
Dr Jan Wright, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, releases a report evaluating the use of 1080. She says it is effective and safe and New Zealand should use more of it.
2014 – Biological Heritage NSC
Launch of New Zealand’s Biological Heritage Ngā Koiora Tuku Iho National Science Challenge. Research will cover biosecurity and management.
Logo courtesy of New Zealand’s Biological Heritage National Science Challenge
2016 – Predator-free launch
The government adopts the goal of becoming predator-free by 2050.
2017 – Gene editing
The Royal Society Te Apārangi releases documents exploring the use of gene editing for pest control of possums, rats and stoats.
Image courtesy of Royal Society Te Apārangi
