1080 – an overview
1080, or sodium fluoroacetate, is a poison used to control pest species. It is the salt form of a naturally occurring toxin found in poisonous plants in South America, Africa and Australia.
New Zealand’s pest problem
Possums, stoats, ferrets and rats are introduced species that have become significant pests in New Zealand. They eat an estimated 26 million native bird eggs or chicks every year. Possums also destroy 21,000 tonnes of native forest daily (more than the weight of two school buses). They eat leaves, berries, fruit and flowers. This takes food away from native animals and prevents plants from reproducing. Possums have caused catastrophic dieback in rātā-kāmahi forests.
Southern rātā
New Zealand’s southern-most forest tree, the southern rātā (Metrosideros umbellata), extends across the shoreline of the Auckland Islands. The bright red flowers that bloom in late summer provide nectar to many small birds such as tūī and bellbird.
What differences might you expect to see between southern rātā and northern rātā?
Acknowledgement: Craig McKenzie, licensed under Creative Commons 2.0.
Possums, ferrets and wild deer also threaten our multi-billion dollar meat and dairy industry. They carry bovine TB – a disease that affects a wide range of wild and domesticated animals, including cattle and farmed deer. The disease is infectious and primarily affects the animals’ airways and lungs. When a case of infection is identified, animal movements in the area are restricted, wider testing takes place and infected animals are culled.
Farm animals come in contact with bovine TB where farmland is bordered by forest with TB-infected possums, ferrets or deer. TB-infected possums live in about 40% of New Zealand.
Why use 1080?
Many of New Zealand’s native species are endemic and unique due to millions of years of isolation. They did not evolve to defend themselves from mammalian predators.
Conservation group Forest & Bird reports that our unique native species are in crisis and that 80% of birds, 88% of lizards and 100% of frogs are under threat of extinction. Pest predators also prey on many of our invertebrates and native plants – all of which contribute to the health of our natural ecosystems.
Maud Island frog
Maud Island frogs are one of 4 endemic frog species found in New Zealand.
Points of interest
How are New Zealand’s endemic frog species different to frogs introduced from Australia?
What is being done to conserve the Maud Island frog?
New Zealand farming is also affected when introduced pests spread bovine TB.
New Zealand uses 1080 to control pest mammals. It is used more widely here than in any other country because New Zealand has no indigenous land mammals except for bats, fur seals and sea lions.
Who uses 1080?
1080 is a controlled substance and can only be used by licensed operators. This makes it the most regulated pest control poison in New Zealand.
The Department of Conservation (DOC), Operational Solutions for Primary Industry (OSPRI) and regional councils are the primary users. They use a combination of bait stations and traps where possible and aerial bait operations in inaccessible and remote areas. 1080 is one of 11 poisons used by DOC.
One-third of New Zealand is made up of public conservation land – more than 80,000 km2 – but only 12.5% of this receives any predator control. About 5% of conservation land (4,000 km2) is treated with 1080 in a normal year. OSPRI uses predator control on 35,000 km2 annually. Regional councils sometimes use pest control on regional parkland and public reserves that they manage and, with permission, on private land.
In New Zealand, 3,500,000 kilograms of pesticide is used every year, and the amount of 1080 used is less than one-thousandth of this – about 3,000 kilograms.
Dr Jan Wright, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment
Assessing 1080 use in New Zealand
In 2006, the Environmental Risk Management Authority (ERMA) was asked to reassess 1080 use. There was wide consultation, with ERMA reporting it was the most extensive public hearing process in its history. The review found that the benefits of 1080 use outweighed the adverse effects. However, the review called for tighter controls, better reporting and improved monitoring and communication.
In 2013, the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA – formerly known as ERMA) did a follow-up review. It found the new rules were working and the pesticide industry was serious about improving its operations. The EPA said it had no plans to further reassess 1080.
Dr Jan Wright, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, conducted an independent investigation evaluating the use of 1080 to protect native ecosystems. In her 2011 report, Dr Wright concluded that the use of 1080 should continue. She also made several recommendations to simplify and improve regulations and communications.
1080 warning sign
The Environmental Protection Authority requires signs to be placed at all normal entries to areas treated with 1080.
Aerial 1080 operations – consultation and notification
The EPA has best-practice guidelines for consultation and communication. The guidelines note that, if an operation is taking place on public land, Māori, neighbours and hunting groups must be consulted and interested community groups should be consulted. Land users need time to move stock, beehives or similar and to protect their dogs. Hunting groups need time to alert members to the risks of hunting after an operation and the risks to their dogs and notification when it is safe to resume hunting.
Public notification is also required:
There must be notices in newspapers about the application date, substance to be used, appropriate warnings, a description of the target area and the name of the person responsible.
All owners, occupiers and grazing licence holders of land included in and bordering the treatment area must be notified.
Signs must be put up at every normal point of entry before the baits are applied. There is a list of information that must be on each sign.
The EPA publishes annual reports regarding operations, communications, monitoring and incidents.
An effective but controversial method
The scientific case for using 1080 is strong – 1080 is very effective when used in a careful and timely manner, it can be used in rugged and inaccessible areas, it does not bioaccumulate in plants or animals, it breaks down quickly in soil and water and does not leave permanent residues, and it is cost-effective.
Aerial use of 1080 is a wicked problem. Most people are uneasy about using poisons on a large scale. Mistakes were made in the past. Human error and non-compliance mean that there will still be risks of bykill to non-target species. However, to prevent the destruction of New Zealand’s unique ecosystems, scientific and government organisations recommend that 1080 continues to be one of the tools used to fight introduced predators.
The scientists and conservation workers that I know look forward to the time when reliable, equally effective alternatives become available – but that time is still, realistically, years away, and frankly, our native ecosystems can’t wait that long.
Dr Alison Campbell, University of Waikato
The interactive timeline below outlines some of the history, science and use of 1080. A full transcript is underneath.
1080 and pest control – a timeline
- Introduced pest mammals
- 1080 as pest control
- Advances in science and technology
Kiore and kurī
Kiore (Pacific rats) and kurī (dogs) arrive in the canoes of the first Polynesian explorers. Kiore contribute to the extinction or reduction of several native species including giant wētā, snails and the New Zealand snipe.
Norway rats
Norway rats arrive on the ships of some of the first European explorers. The rats quickly disperse and spread.
Cats
James Cook’s ship cat is the first cat to kill native birds.
Brushtail possums
Image licensed through 123RF Limited
The Australian brushtail possum is deliberately introduced to establish a fur trade, but efforts are unsuccessful.
Rabbits
Rabbits are introduced for food and sport.
Hares
Hares are introduced to Canterbury for food and sport.
Red deer
Matthew Gibson, 123RF Ltd
The first of about 1,000 British red deer are released in the South Island for game hunting.
Southland possums
Possums are successfully established in Southland in order to establish a fur trade.
Ship rats
Photograph by Jason Froggatt, Auckland War Memorial Museum
Introduced during earlier visits, ship rats are now established across New Zealand.
This image provides a comparison of rat species in New Zealand. From left to right – Norway rat, ship rat, kiore and house mouse.
Red deer
Red deer are released into the North Island.
Hedgehogs
Image of European Hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, collected 1 December 1932, Taita, Wellington, New Zealand. Gift of Frederick Westbury, 1933. CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Te Papa (LM001417)
The European hedgehog is introduced to eat slugs, snails and grubs.
Ferrets
Ferrets are introduced to control rabbits and hares. They immediately spread into the bush.
Stoats
Stoats are introduced to control rabbits and hares. Scientists, including ornithologist Walter Butler, warn of the danger to native birds.
Hedgehogs exchanged for weka
Christchurch man imports 12 hedgehogs in exchange for 12 weka. The hedgehogs escape on their first night ashore.
Monofluroacetate synthesised
Public domain
Belgian chemist Frédéric Swarts first synthesises monofluoroacetate in the lab.
Image shows Frédéric with other attendees at the Solvay Conference on Chemistry in 1922.
Wapiti gifted
US President Theodore Roosevelt gives wapiti deer as a gift to the country. They are released in Fiordland.
Impact of deer
Red deer in a paddock in the Wairarapa. Ref: 1/2-000268-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23081433
Large herds are reported to be overgrazing pasture and native forests, causing erosion and flooding.
Monofluoroacetate patented
Monofluoroacetate is patented in Germany as an insecticide/moth repellent. (At this time, the chemical naming protocol requires the first element of a compound to be numbered. There is one sodium atom in the compound, so it is called monofluoroacetate. The protocol has since changed, so mono is no longer used.)
Possums spread
A rare image of a rat and a possum taking chicks from a nest, courtesy of Ngā Manu Images.
Possums have now been released in 450 locations around the country.
Deer menace
Deer hunters camp at Camerons Flat, and antlers. Ref: PAColl-6208-41. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22729288
The Deer Menace Conference takes place in Christchurch. Government deer culling begins soon after.
1080 ‘named’
US Fish and Wildlife Service refers to fluoroacetate by its laboratory catalogue number – 1080. It is first used in the US as a rodenticide to control rats and mice and later used to control coyotes and other predatory mammals on government-owned land.
Possums declared pests
Possums are classified as pests because of the damage they cause in native forests. All protections are removed.
Possum bounty scheme
Two possum trappers with a day’s catch from the Lake Waikaremoana district. Ref: PAColl-8983-05. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22833760
A bounty scheme runs for 10 years – 8 million possums are trapped and killed, mostly from accessible locations.
New Zealand trials
Evening Post (Newspaper. 1865-2002): Photographic negatives and prints of the Evening Post newspaper. Ref: EP/1957/2393-F. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22621780
New Zealand tests the efficacy of 1080 for mammalian pest control using both ground-based and aerial applications. Its usage becomes widespread by 1957. Small amounts of 1080 are added to a variety of baits including cereal pellets, chopped carrot and gel baits.
This image is of carrots being bagged in 1957 for use with 1080 bait.
Use in South Africa
1080 is used in South Africa to target jackals, moles and baboons.
Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa
Photo copyright of Brian Bell and sourced from The legacy of Big South Cape: Rat irruption to rat eradication. Elizabeth Bell, Brian D. Bell and Don V. Merton. January 2016. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 40(2): 212–218.
Ship rats are accidentally introduced on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa (off Rakiura/Stewart Island) and quickly wipe out seven native species including birds, a bat and an insect. Other species are impacted but not eliminated.
Learn more in Big South Cape: an invasion, a rescue and an eradication.
Image of damage by ship rats to the Waitiri family muttonbird hut on Big South Cape Island/Taukihepa, April 1964.
Bovine tuberculosis
A vet makes the link between bovine tuberculosis and possums. Research confirms the link in 1971. Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease that affects the lungs and airways.
United States cancels the use of 1080
Lawsuits prompt the US Government to review the use of toxins to control predators on government-owned land. As a result, the Environmental Protection Agency cancels the registration of 1080, sodium cyanide, strychnine and thallium sulfate.
Reduced funding for TB possum control
Curbing possum numbers for TB control is initially very successful, so funding and operations are reduced. As a result of reduced control, areas where wild animals have bovine TB increase from 8 to 15. Infected herd numbers rise to pre-control levels.
Cinnamon oil
Cinnamon oil is added to baits. The smell is offensive to birds but attractive to possums.
United States reinstates 1080 use
The US Environmental Protection Agency registers 1080 for use in livestock protection collars. The collar has a pouch of 1080 solution, which ruptures when a coyote attempts to kill a sheep or goat by biting its throat. Only coyotes that attack livestock are killed.
GPS navigation
petervick16, licensed through 123RF Ltd
The first GPS navigation systems guide aerial fertiliser applications. 1080 operators are quick to adopt the technology.
Video evidence
Video shows possums eating kōkako eggs and chicks. Prior to this, possums were assumed to be vegetarian.
Continued bait research
Using non-toxic baits, research finds that some bird species still sample green cinnamon baits.
Tree wētā study
Andy Heyward, licensed through 123RF Ltd.
In a lab study, tree wētā fed doses of 1080 survive, with 67% of the toxin being excreted within hours.
Biocontrol options
University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato
A paper in the New Zealand Journal of Zoology outlines several options to biologically control possums, including using parasitic worms, hormone-toxins and vaccines.
Lower bait concentration
Research shows that less bait is needed. The concentration drops from 20 kg bait/ha down to 5 kg bait/ha and eventually to 2–3 kg bait/ha.
Bait pre-feeding
1080:The Facts
Non-toxic pre-feeds are now standard practice. Eating safe, pleasant-tasting baits encourages rats and possums to seek out the poisoned baits when they are dropped.
Diagram of pre-feeding benefits courtesy of http://www.1080facts.co.nz/the-science-of-how-1080-works.html.
Blue dye added
Trials show most bird species do not eat blue food items but possums do. Blue dye is added to green baits.
Bait flow sensors
Sensors and video recordings help aerial operators to achieve more evenly spread bait coverage.
Managing the spread of bovine TB
Graham Nugent, Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research, CC-BY 4.0
Over 300 New Zealand cattle herds are infected with bovine TB. By 2015, the number is reduced to less than 50 herds.
A fatal curiosity is how TB could have spread from an infected possum (with pus on its fur) to cattle.
Aquatic creatures
NIWA scientists place 10 times the usual 1080 concentration in a stream. Samplings show no biological impacts to aquatic organisms.
Wallaby cull
Tasmania uses 1080 to kill 200,000 wallabies on King Island.
Soil organisms
Andreas Thomsen CC 3.0
Landcare Research scientists expose a range of soil organisms to doses of 1080. Any 1080-related effects happen at levels well above those measured in soil following a 1080 operation.
This images shows a tiger worm (Eisenia fetida) and on the right a cocoon.
Drinking water
University of Waikato Te Whare Wānanga o Waikato
New Zealand’s Ministry of Health adopts water standards, with a provisional maximum acceptable value (PMVA) of 3.5 ppb 1080 but recommends drinking water be less than 2 ppb.
ERMA reassessment
New Zealand’s Environmental Risk Management Authority judges that the benefits of 1080 outweigh adverse effects but recommends tighter controls.
New Zealand horse deaths
An aerial 1080 drop near Tūrangi leaves four horses dead and three sick when the operator fails to advise the owner to move the horses.
Carrot baits stopped
Department of Conservation
New Zealand’s Department of Conservation stops using carrot baits. Although dyed bright green, they are still attractive to some non-target species like kākā.
SowLow bucket
Morgan, David. (2015). Maximising the effectiveness of aerial 1080 control of possums (Trichosurus vulpecula). 10.13140/2.1.3354.9607.
A new 1080 bait bucket delivery design increases the effectiveness of aerial operations.
Biocontrol research finishes
Research into possum contraceptive vaccines and hormone toxin projects ends. Much has been learned about possum reproduction, but practical control methods have not been achieved.
Self-resetting traps
Goodnature trap, Annie Dick, CC BY-SA 4.0
Conservation groups trial self-resetting traps and provide feedback to refine the traps and lures. The aim is to reduce the need for people to check and reset traps between kills.
Red fox eradication
Tasmania uses 1080 to eradicate red foxes from the state.
Whio success
Bubs Smith
Whio (blue duck) fledgling numbers triple after aerial and ground control operations in Tongariro National Park in the central North Island.
PCE report
Dr Jan Wright, Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment, releases a report evaluating the use of 1080. She says it is effective and safe and New Zealand should use more of it.
Tahr damage
Department of Conservation, CC BY 4.0
Department of Conservation photos reveal grazing impacts of tahr on native vegetation.
Image is of Zora Creek, Landsborough, before tahr impacts 2003 (left) and after tahr impacts 2012.
Large beech mast
Large beech seed events in the South Island lead to a boom in pest numbers. Increased aerial 1080 drops are effective in stopping rat plagues.
Kea deaths
The Department of Conservation reports that 24 radio-tagged kea died as a result of aerial operations between 2008 and 2014. Kea deaths are confined to just six of the pest control sites. Experts think kea that are exposed to human activity and food are at greater risk of poisoning as they are more likely to try new foods.
Biological Heritage NSC
New Zealand’s Biological Heritage National Science Challenge
Launch of New Zealand’s Biological Heritage Ngā Koiora Tuku Iho National Science Challenge. Research will cover biosecurity and management.
Kōkako success
Matt Binns, CC BY 2.0
The kōkako population in the Mangatutu Ecological Area (south of Hamilton) grows by 700% after four 1080 drops over 16 years.
This image is of a North Island kōkako (Callaeas wilsoni).
No kea deaths
The Department of Conservation reports that there were no kea deaths from it's 2016 Battle for our Birds aerial operation.
Sika deer released
Sika deer are illegally released into north Taranaki conservation forest. Wild deer are major pests on public conservation lands.
Gene editing
Royal Society Te Apārangi
The Royal Society Te Apārangi releases documents exploring the use of gene editing for pest control of possums, rats and stoats.
Cattle deaths
Eight cattle die after entering a 1080 operational area via a broken fence.
South Island robins
Research published in 2021 notes the positive nesting success of South Island robins after aerial 1080 drops significantly reduced ship rat populations.
1080 and pest control – a timeline
This timeline explores the history and science of mammalian pest control in New Zealand. A full transcript is underneath the timeline.
1080 and pest control – a timeline
This timeline explores the history and science of mammalian pest control in New Zealand. A full transcript is underneath the timeline.
Nature of science
There has been considerable scientific research regarding 1080 and its impacts on plants and animals (including humans) as well as its fate in water and soil. It is the role of science to present the facts and findings. While scientists can make recommendations about the efficacy and use of 1080, it is up to government authorities like the Environmental Protection Authority to regulate and monitor the use of 1080 in New Zealand.
Related content
Learn more about 1080 and pest in these articles:
Watch scientists from TBfree New Zealand and Landcare Research – Manaaki Whenua talk about innovations in bovine tuberculosis identification and eradication.
Useful links
The Department of Conservation has a pesticide summaries page to help people decide where and where not to go on conservation land. The website includes an interactive map with up-to-date information about where pesticides have been laid or are planned to be laid on conservation land.
The OSPRI website has a list of aerial pest control operations that are under way or planned.
Download the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment’s report Evaluating the use of 1080: Predators, poisons and silent forests on this page.
See the 1080 section on the Environmental Protection Authority website, for more see the publications below:
Annual reports on 1080 aerial operations.
Read Dr Alison Campbell’s blog So what does the actual Science say about 1080? for further information and links to relevant scientific research.
See our 1080 pesticide use Pinterest board for more resources.
Read the New Zealand School Journal article The Possum Problem.
