Theories of animal ethics
Māori concepts for animal ethics is an introduction to the complexities of human relationships with animals. This article briefly examines two main approaches to a theory of animal ethics – a unifying approach and a relational approach – noting there are indistinct boundaries between the two.
The following text is an excerpt from Exploring the Three Rs of Animal Ethics with Māori Ideas (a version of the text is available as a PDF in te reo Māori only or a bilingual version).
Unifying theory of animal ethics
Unifying approaches provide a central or unifying theme around which related concepts can be understood and used. This unifying concept emphasises the similarities or continuity between humans and animals. As such, no ethical significance is given to being a human as opposed to being an animal – not a human – because animals suffer just like humans. Therefore, animals have rights that should be respected, and as sentient beings, their interests are equal to those of people.
Free-range chickens
Humans raise chickens for meat and egg production. In Aotearoa New Zealand, poultry farmers and egg producers must comply with the Animal Products Act 1999, Animal Welfare Act 1999 and Agricultural Compounds and Veterinary Medicines Act 1997.
However, the complexities of life make it very difficult to abide by a single ethical norm – such as ensuring animals avoid suffering. It is impossible to live our lives in a way that is shaped by one specific ideal.
Tolerance for others entails that people are ethical pluralists. Adding to the difficulty is that, even though we know we ought to do something, we do not do it. While part of this issue is that we are capricious, it can also be that we are not motivated to do the right thing – a type of ethical schizophrenia .
For example, despite our knowledge about how animals suffer in food production, many people do not change their diets and become vegetarian. Another reason to change one’s diet is the link between meat production and climate change from greenhouse gases, yet only some people are motivated to change for this reason.
Another difficult aspect of the unifying approach to animal ethics relates to being human. If we focus only on principles such as suffering, being sentient and/or rights, we blur the differences between our attitudes to other humans and to animals. We also run the risk of disregarding our humanity.
Whether or not the being that is suffering is human is rendered irrelevant – to privilege humans above animals then becomes an example of species bias or speciesism.
It is virtually impossible, however, to move away from the ethical importance of being human and having a unique position in our world.
Human-animal relationships
Human interactions with animals come in many forms – from pets and service animals to those raised for commercial purposes. Relationship boundaries often reflect individual belief systems.
Relational theory of animal ethics
The relational approach is a contrasting view of human-animal relationships, which accentuates the otherness of animals. Such otherness acknowledges the differences between humans and animals. At the same time, it recognises that animals are in perpetual webs of relationships with humans. Humans thus understand themselves both in relation with, and in contrast to, animals.
Nevertheless, a relational approach involves boundaries. We perceive our relationship with animals by drawing a boundary and defining what occupies one side of the boundary (humans) in contrast with the other-than-humans – such as animals – that occupy the other side. In doing this, the particularity of individual animals is overlooked.
The danger involved in adopting a relational approach is that we focus on the special nature of being human. The relational approach offers little guidance for actions to be taken, since the suffering of animals is overlooked – the animal’s perspective is absent.
Belief systems, language and assumptions
It is important to step back and consider how everyday ideas in the English language embed underlying Western assumptions about human-animal relationships – such as in the unifying and relational traditions. Taken on its own, neither approach seems entirely satisfactory. Quite possibly, each person’s own belief system reflects element s of both traditions in a particular balance according to their life circumstances.
With this history and philosophy of animal ethics in mind, read about the development and status of the Three Rs principles – replacement, reduction, refinement – that are the standard formula for animal ethics used in research, testing and teaching.
Related content
Māori concepts for animal ethics – introduction brings together resources that explore animal ethics with a kaupapa Māori approach. Other resources include:
Honouring tikanga and the sacrifice of moths explores the challenge a school community faced when creating a reference collection of local moth species.
The Hub has extensive resources curated under the topic Ethics and science. Use the filters to narrow your search.
Māori knowledge of animals is an introduction to Māori knowledge of a selected sample of animal species indigenous to Aotearoa. Mātauranga Māori about animals known to tūpuna is presented in six groupings:
Ngā manu a Tānemahuta (featuring pīwakawaka, tūī, kererū, rūrū, kōtare, tītī and toroa)
Ngā ika a Tangaroa (featuring makō and tohorā)
Activity ideas
Animal ethics – creating texts has topic suggestions for exploring some of the key concepts featured in this suite of resources.
The Three Rs of animal ethics – crossword puzzles is ideal for making meaning from text and using content vocabulary. Puzzles are in English and te reo Māori.
Explore animal ethics via the context of roaming and/or feral house cats:
Useful links
ANZCCART is the Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching. Its website contains information for animal carers, animal ethics committee members, scientists and schools as well as other interested parties, including booklets on the application of the Three Rs.
Acknowledgement
This content has been developed by Professor Georgina Tuari Stewart (Ngāti Kura , Ngāpuhi-nui-tonu, Pare Hauraki), Auckland University of Technology, and Dr Sally Birdsall, University of Auckland, with funding and support from the Ministry for Primary Industries – Manatū Ahu Matua and the Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART).
Animals of Aotearoa and animal ethics
Animals of Aotearoa: Kaupapa Māori Summaries and Exploring the Three Rs of Animal Ethics with Māori Ideas were developed with funding from the Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART) and the Ministry for Primary Industries. The silhouette design was created for this project and is the copyright of Professor Georgina Tuari Stewart and Dr Sally Birdsall.
