Weather forecasting
Weather has been important for human survival throughout history, affecting a wide range of human activities such as travel, navigation, events and celebrations, planting, harvesting, hunting and fishing.
It comes as no surprise to know that people have been monitoring, measuring and predicting the weather for thousands of years.
Role of weather in wildfire risk
Weather is a key component affecting wildfire risk. Scientists endeavour to understand climatic factors (such as wind, temperature, relative humidity and rainfall) to provide fire managers with better fire risk information. Research into climate change and future fire risk has shown that fire danger is likely to increase, particularly in the eastern areas of New Zealand.
Acknowledgement: Globalphoto, licenced through 123RF limited
Weather or climate?
Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere and varies from minutes to weeks. Climate is the synthesis of weather, recorded and analysed over longer periods, even up to centuries.
Meteorology in New Zealand
The study of weather is called meteorology from the Greek word ‘meteor’, which means skies.
In New Zealand, most of the information about our weather and climate is collected, analysed and made available to the public through NIWA and MetService. This information includes relevant science and research, collection and analysis of data, monitoring and forecasting. MetService is responsible for meteorology and weather forecasting - providing information for a variety of specific settings such as marine and mountains forecasts and tsunami warnings. MetService also provides weather and climate data for global weather networks, but the National Climate Centre at NIWA is responsible for tracking global influences and climate research.
Much of New Zealand’s weather data is collated and analysed at Greta Point in Wellington, where NIWA has one of the most powerful supercomputers in the southern hemisphere. This computer – called FitzRoy – helps scientists work on large problems such as climate change, drought patterns and ocean mapping that involve analysing huge amounts of data and creating predictive models.
Weather stations
MetService operates a weather data collection network over and around New Zealand. This includes data collected from 40 automatic land-based weather stations at sites all over New Zealand.
University of Canterbury weather station
Scientists use a variety of weather monitoring tools and sets of data to make weather predictions – this weather station was set up by University of Canterbury researchers to verify satellite data.
Most land-based weather stations have devices installed to collect information on temperature (thermometer), wind speed and direction (anemometer), rainfall (rain gauge), humidity (hygrometer) and air pressure (barometer). See the related activities below where you can make your own simple versions of these devices.
Weather data is also collected by other ground-based equipment, weather balloons, aircraft, satellites, weather radar, ships and a network of drifting buoys in the Tasman Sea.
Mātauranga Māori – traditional weather forecasting in Aotearoa
Climate has always been important to Māori. It influences which plants, trees and birds are found in various parts of the country, and it affects winds, waves and ocean currents. This knowledge has not only been vital to survival – by helping whānau to prepare and plan for weather hazards and climate variability – but also influences decisions about when to plant, harvest or fish.
Darren King, NIWA environmental scientist
Māori traditionally use events and signs in the natural world for forecasting weather and climate. Many of the indicators are similar from iwi to iwi, region to region, but are refined for local weather predicting based on the patterns and sequences of local indicators.
As with Western systems of weather forecasting, often more than one indicator is used, allowing forecasting on a daily, monthly or seasonal basis, supporting activities such as gardening and navigation.
Using Māori knowledge to forecast local weather and climate reflects the Māori worldview that all things are connected by whakapapa (genealogy) and that subtle natural linkages in the environment can reveal much about atmospheric conditions.
Darren King, NIWA environmental scientist
Mr King and NIWA have helped to make Māori weather and climate science accessible to the public through a series of posters published in English and te reo Māori that outline many of the indicators traditionally used to forecast the weather.
Nature of science
The changing nature of scientific ideas is integral to the nature of science. Developments in any field of science depend on scientists sharing and discussing their ideas. Measuring the weather – a timeline outlines some of the changes that happened as meteorology evolved and new technologies were developed to help explore the natural world.
The timeline below lets you see the historical developments in technology related to weather monitoring, measuring and forecasting. It also shows how scientific thinking changed over the centuries as modern science developed, and how society has influenced scientific thinking. A full transcript is underneath.
Measuring the weather – a timeline
- Technological processes and inventions
- Developing scientific ideas and concepts
- Societal influences
Beginnings of meteorology
Ancient Indian writings are the first to include discussions about the weather, cloud formations and so on.
Use of observational data
Careful observation of the natural world is inherent within all societies across the world to build understandings of how the world works. Observations of local weather patterns are important for survival, and this knowledge is often understood by all members of a society.
Early weather forecasting
All societies rely upon the weather for survival, so we can assume that weather forecasting is practised well before written records begin. Many indigenous societies pass on their weather–reading skills orally.
All societies rely upon the weather for survival, so we can assume that weather forecasting is practised well before written records begin. Many indigenous societies pass on their weather–reading skills orally.
Babylonians predict the weather
The Babylonians use cloud observations to make weather predictions.
First public weather forecasts
Weather forecasts in Greece are formally issued to help people plan their seasonal cropping activities. The study of weather patterns becomes known as meteorology. This term comes from the Greek word ‘meteoros’, which means ‘high in the sky’.
Meteorology develops as a subject
From 600 BC meteorology continues to be a subject of discussion for scientists and philosophers for many centuries BC across the northern hemisphere and through until the early AD centuries. People who specialise in meteorology often use the information to generate useful weather predictions that are sometimes shared with the general public.
Urbanisation
Many members of society are working closely with the land, and urbanisation is also occurring. Weather forecasting is developing into a specialised skill, with information being gathered and then disseminated to the general public.
First rainfall records kept
Rain gauges are one of the most ancient weather instruments. Ancient Greeks and people in India are the first known to keep rainfall records. These rain gauges are relatively simple – containers designed to collect rain.
Weather patterns described by Aristotle
Greek philosopher Aristotle writes Meteorology, which describes all current knowledge about climate and weather.
First hygrometers used
Hygrometers measure the humidity of the air. Ancient hygrometers are in use in China during the Western Han dynasty and help the Chinese planning to plant crops.
Compasses invented in China
Compasses work on the principle that the Earth has a magnetic field that the magnetic pointer aligns with. This enables direction to be determined.
Windsocks used
Windsocks originally come from Japan and China, but no one is sure exactly how long they have been used. Windsocks are used as a basic guide to wind direction and speed.
Windsocks in battle and on the sea
Modern windsock, Adaptice, 123RF Ltd. Roman military banner (or draco) in re-enactment, B.Codrin, Creative Commons 3.0
The wind sail, originally used to direct oxygen into a ship’s lower compartments, may have inspired the development of the windsock in the Western world.
By the time of the Romans, windsocks are known in Europe – the Romans use them as military banners.
Earliest weather vane erected
The earliest weather vane we know about is built in Greece by the astronomer Andronicus and erected in honour of the Greek god Triton. It is in the shape of a man with the tail of a fish and measures between 4 and 8 feet long. A weather vane points in the direction of least resistance, with the front end having less resistance than the back, thereby showing the direction of the wind. Try the activity Making a weather vane and compass.
Weather vanes become popular
It is popular for the houses of the wealthy Greeks around this time to have weather vanes erected on the roof. They are often very ornate, as the wind is thought to have divine powers.
Thermoscopes invented
Hero of Alexandria invents the first thermoscope. It demonstrates changes in heat by showing the expansion and contraction of water within a sealed glass tube. Thermoscopes are the forerunners of thermometers.
Papal decree
Close up detail from the Bayeux Tapestries (ca. 1065) of a weather cock being installed on Westminster Abbey. Public domain.
The Pope decrees that all churches have a weather vane shaped as a rooster placed on their steeple or dome to remind people of their faith – this is where the term weather cock comes from.
Māori weather forecasting begins
Dmitry Pichugin, 123RF Ltd
Close observation of environmental clues allows Māori to develop localised systems for weather prediction.
Mātauranga Māori
Over time, through observation and by developing a close relationship with the environment, Māori build the understandings needed to interpret environmental clues about weather and climate in Aotearoa. Much of this knowledge is finely attuned to particular regions.
Māori knowledge of weather
As Māori arrive in Aotearoa, they have to learn about their new environment. Over the centuries, they develop extensive knowledge about local weather and climate conditions. These learnings form the basis of traditional and modern agriculture, fishing, medicine, education and kaitiakitanga (guardianship).
Compasses in common use
Nautical compass from the 16th century. Luis García, Creative Commons 3.0
From 1300 onwards compasses are used as navigation devices across the northern hemisphere from China to Western Europe.
First standardised rain gauge
Model of ancient Korean rain gauge invented by Jang Yeong-sil, courtesy Steve46814, Creative Commons 3.0
The first standardised rain gauge is invented in Korea. It is called a Cheugugi and is 32 cm high with a diameter of 15 cm.
Standardisation
The first standardised rain gauge represents an example of the value of standardisation to science. Standardisation of equipment, measurements and processes allow comparisons to be made from place to place and over time. This is an important aspect of modern science.
First mechanical anemometer
Version of a cup anemometer, ca. 1846. Public domain.
Leon Battista Alberti is the original inventor of the anemometer, which is later improved upon by Robert Hooke. Try the activity Making an anemometer.
First western hygrometer
A hygrometer measures humidity – the amount of moisture in the air. The first of these is attributed to Nicolas of Cusa, based on a design drawn by Leonardo Da Vinci.
A hygrometer measures humidity – the amount of moisture in the air. The first of these is attributed to Nicolas of Cusa, based on a design drawn by Leonardo Da Vinci.
Latin increasingly used for scientific vocabulary
During the 1500s–1900, as modern science develops in Europe from the time of the Renaissance, the use of Latin as the preferred scientific language increases. By the 1890s, most specialist scientific vocabulary is in Latin. A common language allows for scientific definitions and concepts to be clearly communicated across the world.
Development of thermometers and temperature scales
From 1593 until the 1700s, several inventors, including Isaac Newton, work on the idea of measuring temperature. Try the activity Making a thermometer.
The beginnings of modern science
From 1600 onwards the views of the natural world held by the church are being increasingly challenged. This era is the first in Europe where the world is being measured and not simply accepted as divine
Human temperature measured
From 1593, several inventors work on the idea of measuring temperature. In 1612, Italian inventor Santorio Santorio adds a numerical scale on his thermoscope and it is used to take human temperature.
The term thermometer is coined
University of Waikato
Up until this time, the concept of temperature – comparing hot versus cold on a scale – hasn’t been commonly understood and no one has yet successfully devised a device or scale to measure it. The word thermometer is derived from the Greek word ‘thermos’, meaning hot, and the Greek word ‘metron’, meaning measure. Several temperature scales are developed.
Ships record weather observations around NZ
From 1642 onwards, the first encounters of Europeans with the New Zealand climate, much weather information is recorded – mostly in ships’ logs, as recording the weather at sea is routine. The influence of shipping on weather reporting continues until shipping becomes the less dominant form of transport around New Zealand.
First barometer
Liquid barometer, ClipArt Library.com
Evangelista Torricelli invents the first barometer – his first version is over 35 feet tall! The word barometer is derived from the Greek word ‘baros’, meaning weight, and the Greek word ‘metron’, meaning measure. It measures changes in air pressure. High air pressure tends to indicate fair weather, and low air pressure can indicate poor or rainy weather. Early barometers contain water, but later versions contain mercury. Try the activity Making a barometer.
Collaboration of scientists
Painting of Evangelista Torricelli by Lorenzo Lippi (circa 1647). Public domain.
From 1600 onwards scientists collaborate. Evangelista Torricelli is one of many Italian mathematicians and scientists working in the time of Galileo. This is a time of the scientific renaissance where natural philosophy is being replaced by modern science and many scientists are working together, building on each other’s ideas and developing new understandings about the natural world.
Scientific revolution
Andrew Dunn, Creative Commons 2.0 Generic
Accumulation of knowledge about the world is well under way across all fields of science during the 1600s–1800s. This is epitomised by the publication of Isaac Newton’s Principia in 1687. Many scientists work in a variety of fields. See some of our other timelines for other major discoveries around this time, for example, History of gases and plasmas.
First reliable thermometer
Late 18th century mercury thermometer, courtesy Museo Galileo, Creative Commons 4.0
Daniel Fahrenheit is credited with the invention of the first reliable thermometer, constructed using glass and mercury. He is also credited with the production of the first reproducible thermometers in 1709, where different thermometers could be produced showing the same temperature in the same situation.
Fahrenheit temperature scale devised
Daniel Fahrenheit devises the first reliable temperature scale where ice melts at 32°, body temperature is 98.6° and water boils at 212°. This scale is still used in the USA today.
Celsius temperature scale devised
Anders Celsius suggests temperature should be measured on a 100-point scale, where the boiling point of water is 0° and freezing point is 100°.
Modern Celsius scale developed
The scale developed by Celsius in 1742 is reversed in 1744 when Carl Linnaeus suggests it makes better sense to show freezing at 0°C and boiling at 100°C. This scale is now the standard scale for everyday temperature recording throughout most of the world.
Systematic collection of barometric readings
Systematic collection of data is integral to the development of modern science. The Royal Society in England begins to take and record twice-daily barometric readings in 1774 and allows long-term records to be kept.
Hygrometer developments
Early hygrometer made by Andrew J Lloyd, early 20th century. Public domain.
A more reliable hygrometer is developed by Horace Benedict de Saussure. It uses a human hair that curls or straightens due to different humidity in the air.
Clouds given Latin names
Different types of clouds are described and named in Latin – the international language of science at the time. Try the activity Clouds and the weather.
Telegraph machines invented
Morse telegraph machine, F.Sergio, 123RF Ltd
During the 1830s and 1840s the development of the telegraph machine makes the collection of a range of weather data from various regions possible, as it allows information to be sent across long distances. Increased ability to communicate efficiently is transforming how both society and science operate.
Aneroid barometer invented
Inner workings of an aneroid barometer, ca. 1905. Public domain.
First invented by Lucien Vidi, a French scientist, this barometer doesn’t contain liquid as most previous designs have. Small changes in air pressure cause the mechanism within to expand or contract, and this movement is transferred to a needle on the front of the case. This design has been improved steadily over the years and is the basis of modern barometers.
Barometer readings are the basis of all weather forecasting as the changes in air pressure are predictive of future weather, unlike many of the other weather instruments. The units used are atmospheres (atm) or bars. One atm/bar is the air pressure at sea level at 15°C.
Barometers become very common
From 1844, barometers become very popular and are common in homes and on farms, boats and small aircraft, as well as being used in meteorology.
The Invention of the cup anemometer
The cup anemometer is invented by English astronomer John Robinson. ‘Anemos’ is the Greek word for wind. Anemometers measure wind speed – wind will make the cups of an anemometer spin around, the speed of the spin depending on the strength of the wind. Wind speed is measured in knots or on the Beaufort scale.
First independent weather station
A stable kite is sent up in the air in England to make observations at altitude, using self-recording instruments.
Kelvin temperature scale devised
Lord Kelvin. Public domain.
Lord Kelvin devises the Kelvin temperature scale, which is used by scientists worldwide. It has the same magnitude as Celsius but starts with 0° at absolute zero (the coldest temperature anything in the universe can be), which is the equivalent of -273.55°C.
Link made between isobars and wind
Dutch meteorologist Christopher Buys-Ballot makes the link between isobars and wind and comes up with an easy rule to follow – for the southern hemisphere, “To look into the wind, the low pressure is on the left.”
Co-ordinated weather forecasting
Fitzroy in England is collecting data and publishing his weather forecasts and the Smithsonian Institution in America is doing the same. Over the next few years, meteorological organisations are set up worldwide.
Using data to predict the weather
Using data from a variety of sources to create a picture is fundamental to modern science. Robert Fitzroy, captain of Darwin’s ship HMS Beagle from 1828–1836, becomes known as the father of forecasting. He pioneers the science of weather forecasting, combining observations and data from weather monitoring instruments to make predictions about the weather, which are then regularly reported to the public.
NZ Government involved in meteorology
An auditor is appointed by the New Zealand Government to begin a programme of regular weather observations. This involves buying the first state-owned thermometers.
Storm warnings issued to ships and harbours in NZ
Responsibility for forecasting the weather, using all the information available at the time, is taken on by the Marine Department. Storm warnings are issued that help harbourmasters around the country to make decisions to reduce shipwrecks, and the system is adopted after a successful trial.
First weather maps published in NZ
Leading New Zealand newspapers start regularly publishing weather maps for the public.
First pyranometer
A pyranometer measures solar radiation. These are developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and continue to develop today. They are now included as a piece of standard equipment in most weather stations.
First documented use of weather balloons
University of Waikato
Leon Teisserenc launches thousands of weather balloons in France, and his work contributes greatly to our understandings about the atmosphere.
Electronics history begins
With the invention of the vacuum diode by JA Fleming in 1904, the history of electronics begins. Electricity is new, and applications of this new technology revolutionise society and the possibilities for science. Accuracy in weather forecasting and measurement improve with every generation of electronic technological development.
Ship to shore weather reports
Ships gain access to relevant weather information and forecasts from land-based stations via radio and are also able to send weather reports from the sea to the shore.
Windsocks common at all airports
The invention and improvements of radio allow data to be sent long distances quickly and allows for more accurate weather forecasting.
Anemometer improvements
A weather station with a 3 cup anemometer on top. Thitiwat Junkasemkullanunt, 123RF Ltd.
Canadian scientist John Patterson invents the three-cup anemometer for the Meteorological Service of Canada. Anemometers continue to be developed from this time that have greater accuracy and far less error, calculating wind speed from the average cup speed.
New applications of technology
Air pressure changes with altitude. Specially adapted portable barometers, called altimeters, are used to measure the height above or below sea level. Paul Kollsman invents the world’s first accurate altimeter in 1928. It converts barometric pressure into distance above sea level in feet, allowing pilots to fly blind.
Radar is used to improve weather forecasting
From 1935 practical radar systems are developed and a variety of applications ensue, including the development of more accurate weather forecasting. It also allows weather to be viewed on a bigger, more international scale.
Radar is used to observe the weather
From the 1940s onwards radar is used to generate precise weather predictions and storm and hurricane warnings as well as allowing for improved understandings of weather systems.
First successful weather satellite launched
TIROS–1 spends 78 days recording and relaying thousands of weather images to NASA.
Satellites and space technology
From 1960 the development of space technology and the capability to launch craft high in the atmosphere allows for the development of weather monitoring technology on a global level.
Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale created
Although hurricanes had been named for centuries and given personal names since 1887, they are now given alphabetical names and the strength is now given on a scale of 1–5. The Saffir-Simpson scale is widely used internationally, although New Zealand tends to use the Australian Tropical Cyclone Category System.
Weather radar networks expand worldwide
From 1970 weather radar is becoming standardised and develops into networks where various agencies across the world can share and compare data. This is an example of the increasing co-operation of scientists and the sharing of scientific data on a global scale.
The Fujita scale for rating tornadoes introduced
Japanese-American storm researcher Ted Fujita develops a scale for rating tornadoes.
First geostationary operational environmental satellite launched
Satellite image of Cyclone Gita (February 2018), courtesy of MetService NZ.
This satellite is designed to track hurricanes and is the first of the sophisticated set of weather monitoring satellites in orbit today.
Satellite receiving equipment installed in NZ
Dishes are installed to collect weather information from both geostationary and polar orbiting satellites.
Weather radar installations in NZ
Starting with Mount Tamahunga in Auckland in 1989 and prioritising cities with international airports, weather radar is installed systematically across the country.
NZ MetService and NIWA established
MetService is mandated to provide national weather services for New Zealand, based on information collected from a wide variety of sources. NIWA is mandated to “promote and facilitate the application of the results of research and technological developments”. This is an example of a co-ordinated approach to the gathering, analysis and sharing of scientific data between scientists and between scientists and the public.
Crown Research Institutes Act
In a world first, New Zealand alters its approach to public science and establishes a commercial company, NZ MetService, owned by the government, to create money that will support the science of weather forecasting and reduce the costs to the taxpayer. NIWA is also established as a CRI to “provide understanding of climate and the atmosphere and increase resilience to weather and climate hazards”.
NZ weather satellites
From 1995 New Zealand partners with JMA (Japan Meteorological Agency) to receive data from the GMS5 satellite, which provides service for the Asia-Pacific region. This technology improves with time, providing better resolution images and more useful information.
Public weather broadcasts
This is an example of a trend where science is being shared with the public – it is no longer just the domain of the experts.
TV weather broadcasts
Developments in TV graphics allow the public to see and interpret the weather forecast for themselves.
Use of computers
From 1980 computers are routinely and increasingly used to assist weather observations and forecasting. Developments of information technology and software and miniaturisation of electronic components leads to increased sophistication and accuracy in the areas of radar imagery, surface observations and satellite imagery. Worldwide sharing of weather data is now standard practice.
First high-performance computing facility in NZ
NIWA sets up the first high-performance computing facility, which includes a supercomputer (FitzRoy) to deal with all the data related to NIWA’s various research tasks and also generates weather forecasts for the public.
Automated weather recordings in NZ
From 2000 onwards automatic weather stations systems are developed, allowing for automated weather observations to be reported every minute.
Increased accuracy and sophistication
From 2000, the miniaturisation of electronic components allows for a range of more sophisticated equipment in all fields. Weather forecasting technology such as miniaturised weather stations, electronic barometers and smartphone apps increase accuracy and public access to weather data
Measuring the weather – a timeline
This timeline lets you see the historical developments in technology related to weather monitoring, measuring and forecasting. It also shows how scientific thinking changed over the centuries as modern science developed, and how society has influenced scientific thinking. A full transcript is underneath the timeline.
Measuring the weather – a timeline
- Technological processes and inventions
- Developing scientific ideas and concepts
- Societal influences
Beginnings of meteorology
Ancient Indian writings are the first to include discussions about the weather, cloud formations and so on.
Use of observational data
Careful observation of the natural world is inherent within all societies across the world to build understandings of how the world works. Observations of local weather patterns are important for survival, and this knowledge is often understood by all members of a society.
Early weather forecasting
All societies rely upon the weather for survival, so we can assume that weather forecasting is practised well before written records begin. Many indigenous societies pass on their weather–reading skills orally.
All societies rely upon the weather for survival, so we can assume that weather forecasting is practised well before written records begin. Many indigenous societies pass on their weather–reading skills orally.
Babylonians predict the weather
The Babylonians use cloud observations to make weather predictions.
First public weather forecasts
Weather forecasts in Greece are formally issued to help people plan their seasonal cropping activities. The study of weather patterns becomes known as meteorology. This term comes from the Greek word ‘meteoros’, which means ‘high in the sky’.
Meteorology develops as a subject
From 600 BC meteorology continues to be a subject of discussion for scientists and philosophers for many centuries BC across the northern hemisphere and through until the early AD centuries. People who specialise in meteorology often use the information to generate useful weather predictions that are sometimes shared with the general public.
Urbanisation
Many members of society are working closely with the land, and urbanisation is also occurring. Weather forecasting is developing into a specialised skill, with information being gathered and then disseminated to the general public.
First rainfall records kept
Rain gauges are one of the most ancient weather instruments. Ancient Greeks and people in India are the first known to keep rainfall records. These rain gauges are relatively simple – containers designed to collect rain.
Weather patterns described by Aristotle
Greek philosopher Aristotle writes Meteorology, which describes all current knowledge about climate and weather.
First hygrometers used
Hygrometers measure the humidity of the air. Ancient hygrometers are in use in China during the Western Han dynasty and help the Chinese planning to plant crops.
Compasses invented in China
Compasses work on the principle that the Earth has a magnetic field that the magnetic pointer aligns with. This enables direction to be determined.
Windsocks used
Windsocks originally come from Japan and China, but no one is sure exactly how long they have been used. Windsocks are used as a basic guide to wind direction and speed.
Windsocks in battle and on the sea
Modern windsock, Adaptice, 123RF Ltd. Roman military banner (or draco) in re-enactment, B.Codrin, Creative Commons 3.0
The wind sail, originally used to direct oxygen into a ship’s lower compartments, may have inspired the development of the windsock in the Western world.
By the time of the Romans, windsocks are known in Europe – the Romans use them as military banners.
Earliest weather vane erected
The earliest weather vane we know about is built in Greece by the astronomer Andronicus and erected in honour of the Greek god Triton. It is in the shape of a man with the tail of a fish and measures between 4 and 8 feet long. A weather vane points in the direction of least resistance, with the front end having less resistance than the back, thereby showing the direction of the wind. Try the activity Making a weather vane and compass.
Weather vanes become popular
It is popular for the houses of the wealthy Greeks around this time to have weather vanes erected on the roof. They are often very ornate, as the wind is thought to have divine powers.
Thermoscopes invented
Hero of Alexandria invents the first thermoscope. It demonstrates changes in heat by showing the expansion and contraction of water within a sealed glass tube. Thermoscopes are the forerunners of thermometers.
Papal decree
Close up detail from the Bayeux Tapestries (ca. 1065) of a weather cock being installed on Westminster Abbey. Public domain.
The Pope decrees that all churches have a weather vane shaped as a rooster placed on their steeple or dome to remind people of their faith – this is where the term weather cock comes from.
Māori weather forecasting begins
Dmitry Pichugin, 123RF Ltd
Close observation of environmental clues allows Māori to develop localised systems for weather prediction.
Mātauranga Māori
Over time, through observation and by developing a close relationship with the environment, Māori build the understandings needed to interpret environmental clues about weather and climate in Aotearoa. Much of this knowledge is finely attuned to particular regions.
Māori knowledge of weather
As Māori arrive in Aotearoa, they have to learn about their new environment. Over the centuries, they develop extensive knowledge about local weather and climate conditions. These learnings form the basis of traditional and modern agriculture, fishing, medicine, education and kaitiakitanga (guardianship).
Compasses in common use
Nautical compass from the 16th century. Luis García, Creative Commons 3.0
From 1300 onwards compasses are used as navigation devices across the northern hemisphere from China to Western Europe.
First standardised rain gauge
Model of ancient Korean rain gauge invented by Jang Yeong-sil, courtesy Steve46814, Creative Commons 3.0
The first standardised rain gauge is invented in Korea. It is called a Cheugugi and is 32 cm high with a diameter of 15 cm.
Standardisation
The first standardised rain gauge represents an example of the value of standardisation to science. Standardisation of equipment, measurements and processes allow comparisons to be made from place to place and over time. This is an important aspect of modern science.
First mechanical anemometer
Version of a cup anemometer, ca. 1846. Public domain.
Leon Battista Alberti is the original inventor of the anemometer, which is later improved upon by Robert Hooke. Try the activity Making an anemometer.
First western hygrometer
A hygrometer measures humidity – the amount of moisture in the air. The first of these is attributed to Nicolas of Cusa, based on a design drawn by Leonardo Da Vinci.
A hygrometer measures humidity – the amount of moisture in the air. The first of these is attributed to Nicolas of Cusa, based on a design drawn by Leonardo Da Vinci.
Latin increasingly used for scientific vocabulary
During the 1500s–1900, as modern science develops in Europe from the time of the Renaissance, the use of Latin as the preferred scientific language increases. By the 1890s, most specialist scientific vocabulary is in Latin. A common language allows for scientific definitions and concepts to be clearly communicated across the world.
Development of thermometers and temperature scales
From 1593 until the 1700s, several inventors, including Isaac Newton, work on the idea of measuring temperature. Try the activity Making a thermometer.
The beginnings of modern science
From 1600 onwards the views of the natural world held by the church are being increasingly challenged. This era is the first in Europe where the world is being measured and not simply accepted as divine
Human temperature measured
From 1593, several inventors work on the idea of measuring temperature. In 1612, Italian inventor Santorio Santorio adds a numerical scale on his thermoscope and it is used to take human temperature.
The term thermometer is coined
University of Waikato
Up until this time, the concept of temperature – comparing hot versus cold on a scale – hasn’t been commonly understood and no one has yet successfully devised a device or scale to measure it. The word thermometer is derived from the Greek word ‘thermos’, meaning hot, and the Greek word ‘metron’, meaning measure. Several temperature scales are developed.
Ships record weather observations around NZ
From 1642 onwards, the first encounters of Europeans with the New Zealand climate, much weather information is recorded – mostly in ships’ logs, as recording the weather at sea is routine. The influence of shipping on weather reporting continues until shipping becomes the less dominant form of transport around New Zealand.
First barometer
Liquid barometer, ClipArt Library.com
Evangelista Torricelli invents the first barometer – his first version is over 35 feet tall! The word barometer is derived from the Greek word ‘baros’, meaning weight, and the Greek word ‘metron’, meaning measure. It measures changes in air pressure. High air pressure tends to indicate fair weather, and low air pressure can indicate poor or rainy weather. Early barometers contain water, but later versions contain mercury. Try the activity Making a barometer.
Collaboration of scientists
Painting of Evangelista Torricelli by Lorenzo Lippi (circa 1647). Public domain.
From 1600 onwards scientists collaborate. Evangelista Torricelli is one of many Italian mathematicians and scientists working in the time of Galileo. This is a time of the scientific renaissance where natural philosophy is being replaced by modern science and many scientists are working together, building on each other’s ideas and developing new understandings about the natural world.
Scientific revolution
Andrew Dunn, Creative Commons 2.0 Generic
Accumulation of knowledge about the world is well under way across all fields of science during the 1600s–1800s. This is epitomised by the publication of Isaac Newton’s Principia in 1687. Many scientists work in a variety of fields. See some of our other timelines for other major discoveries around this time, for example, History of gases and plasmas.
First reliable thermometer
Late 18th century mercury thermometer, courtesy Museo Galileo, Creative Commons 4.0
Daniel Fahrenheit is credited with the invention of the first reliable thermometer, constructed using glass and mercury. He is also credited with the production of the first reproducible thermometers in 1709, where different thermometers could be produced showing the same temperature in the same situation.
Fahrenheit temperature scale devised
Daniel Fahrenheit devises the first reliable temperature scale where ice melts at 32°, body temperature is 98.6° and water boils at 212°. This scale is still used in the USA today.
Celsius temperature scale devised
Anders Celsius suggests temperature should be measured on a 100-point scale, where the boiling point of water is 0° and freezing point is 100°.
Modern Celsius scale developed
The scale developed by Celsius in 1742 is reversed in 1744 when Carl Linnaeus suggests it makes better sense to show freezing at 0°C and boiling at 100°C. This scale is now the standard scale for everyday temperature recording throughout most of the world.
Systematic collection of barometric readings
Systematic collection of data is integral to the development of modern science. The Royal Society in England begins to take and record twice-daily barometric readings in 1774 and allows long-term records to be kept.
Hygrometer developments
Early hygrometer made by Andrew J Lloyd, early 20th century. Public domain.
A more reliable hygrometer is developed by Horace Benedict de Saussure. It uses a human hair that curls or straightens due to different humidity in the air.
Clouds given Latin names
Different types of clouds are described and named in Latin – the international language of science at the time. Try the activity Clouds and the weather.
Telegraph machines invented
Morse telegraph machine, F.Sergio, 123RF Ltd
During the 1830s and 1840s the development of the telegraph machine makes the collection of a range of weather data from various regions possible, as it allows information to be sent across long distances. Increased ability to communicate efficiently is transforming how both society and science operate.
Aneroid barometer invented
Inner workings of an aneroid barometer, ca. 1905. Public domain.
First invented by Lucien Vidi, a French scientist, this barometer doesn’t contain liquid as most previous designs have. Small changes in air pressure cause the mechanism within to expand or contract, and this movement is transferred to a needle on the front of the case. This design has been improved steadily over the years and is the basis of modern barometers.
Barometer readings are the basis of all weather forecasting as the changes in air pressure are predictive of future weather, unlike many of the other weather instruments. The units used are atmospheres (atm) or bars. One atm/bar is the air pressure at sea level at 15°C.
Barometers become very common
From 1844, barometers become very popular and are common in homes and on farms, boats and small aircraft, as well as being used in meteorology.
The Invention of the cup anemometer
The cup anemometer is invented by English astronomer John Robinson. ‘Anemos’ is the Greek word for wind. Anemometers measure wind speed – wind will make the cups of an anemometer spin around, the speed of the spin depending on the strength of the wind. Wind speed is measured in knots or on the Beaufort scale.
First independent weather station
A stable kite is sent up in the air in England to make observations at altitude, using self-recording instruments.
Kelvin temperature scale devised
Lord Kelvin. Public domain.
Lord Kelvin devises the Kelvin temperature scale, which is used by scientists worldwide. It has the same magnitude as Celsius but starts with 0° at absolute zero (the coldest temperature anything in the universe can be), which is the equivalent of -273.55°C.
Link made between isobars and wind
Dutch meteorologist Christopher Buys-Ballot makes the link between isobars and wind and comes up with an easy rule to follow – for the southern hemisphere, “To look into the wind, the low pressure is on the left.”
Co-ordinated weather forecasting
Fitzroy in England is collecting data and publishing his weather forecasts and the Smithsonian Institution in America is doing the same. Over the next few years, meteorological organisations are set up worldwide.
Using data to predict the weather
Using data from a variety of sources to create a picture is fundamental to modern science. Robert Fitzroy, captain of Darwin’s ship HMS Beagle from 1828–1836, becomes known as the father of forecasting. He pioneers the science of weather forecasting, combining observations and data from weather monitoring instruments to make predictions about the weather, which are then regularly reported to the public.
NZ Government involved in meteorology
An auditor is appointed by the New Zealand Government to begin a programme of regular weather observations. This involves buying the first state-owned thermometers.
Storm warnings issued to ships and harbours in NZ
Responsibility for forecasting the weather, using all the information available at the time, is taken on by the Marine Department. Storm warnings are issued that help harbourmasters around the country to make decisions to reduce shipwrecks, and the system is adopted after a successful trial.
First weather maps published in NZ
Leading New Zealand newspapers start regularly publishing weather maps for the public.
First pyranometer
A pyranometer measures solar radiation. These are developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and continue to develop today. They are now included as a piece of standard equipment in most weather stations.
First documented use of weather balloons
University of Waikato
Leon Teisserenc launches thousands of weather balloons in France, and his work contributes greatly to our understandings about the atmosphere.
Electronics history begins
With the invention of the vacuum diode by JA Fleming in 1904, the history of electronics begins. Electricity is new, and applications of this new technology revolutionise society and the possibilities for science. Accuracy in weather forecasting and measurement improve with every generation of electronic technological development.
Ship to shore weather reports
Ships gain access to relevant weather information and forecasts from land-based stations via radio and are also able to send weather reports from the sea to the shore.
Windsocks common at all airports
The invention and improvements of radio allow data to be sent long distances quickly and allows for more accurate weather forecasting.
Anemometer improvements
A weather station with a 3 cup anemometer on top. Thitiwat Junkasemkullanunt, 123RF Ltd.
Canadian scientist John Patterson invents the three-cup anemometer for the Meteorological Service of Canada. Anemometers continue to be developed from this time that have greater accuracy and far less error, calculating wind speed from the average cup speed.
New applications of technology
Air pressure changes with altitude. Specially adapted portable barometers, called altimeters, are used to measure the height above or below sea level. Paul Kollsman invents the world’s first accurate altimeter in 1928. It converts barometric pressure into distance above sea level in feet, allowing pilots to fly blind.
Radar is used to improve weather forecasting
From 1935 practical radar systems are developed and a variety of applications ensue, including the development of more accurate weather forecasting. It also allows weather to be viewed on a bigger, more international scale.
Radar is used to observe the weather
From the 1940s onwards radar is used to generate precise weather predictions and storm and hurricane warnings as well as allowing for improved understandings of weather systems.
First successful weather satellite launched
TIROS–1 spends 78 days recording and relaying thousands of weather images to NASA.
Satellites and space technology
From 1960 the development of space technology and the capability to launch craft high in the atmosphere allows for the development of weather monitoring technology on a global level.
Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale created
Although hurricanes had been named for centuries and given personal names since 1887, they are now given alphabetical names and the strength is now given on a scale of 1–5. The Saffir-Simpson scale is widely used internationally, although New Zealand tends to use the Australian Tropical Cyclone Category System.
Weather radar networks expand worldwide
From 1970 weather radar is becoming standardised and develops into networks where various agencies across the world can share and compare data. This is an example of the increasing co-operation of scientists and the sharing of scientific data on a global scale.
The Fujita scale for rating tornadoes introduced
Japanese-American storm researcher Ted Fujita develops a scale for rating tornadoes.
First geostationary operational environmental satellite launched
Satellite image of Cyclone Gita (February 2018), courtesy of MetService NZ.
This satellite is designed to track hurricanes and is the first of the sophisticated set of weather monitoring satellites in orbit today.
Satellite receiving equipment installed in NZ
Dishes are installed to collect weather information from both geostationary and polar orbiting satellites.
Weather radar installations in NZ
Starting with Mount Tamahunga in Auckland in 1989 and prioritising cities with international airports, weather radar is installed systematically across the country.
NZ MetService and NIWA established
MetService is mandated to provide national weather services for New Zealand, based on information collected from a wide variety of sources. NIWA is mandated to “promote and facilitate the application of the results of research and technological developments”. This is an example of a co-ordinated approach to the gathering, analysis and sharing of scientific data between scientists and between scientists and the public.
Crown Research Institutes Act
In a world first, New Zealand alters its approach to public science and establishes a commercial company, NZ MetService, owned by the government, to create money that will support the science of weather forecasting and reduce the costs to the taxpayer. NIWA is also established as a CRI to “provide understanding of climate and the atmosphere and increase resilience to weather and climate hazards”.
NZ weather satellites
From 1995 New Zealand partners with JMA (Japan Meteorological Agency) to receive data from the GMS5 satellite, which provides service for the Asia-Pacific region. This technology improves with time, providing better resolution images and more useful information.
Public weather broadcasts
This is an example of a trend where science is being shared with the public – it is no longer just the domain of the experts.
TV weather broadcasts
Developments in TV graphics allow the public to see and interpret the weather forecast for themselves.
Use of computers
From 1980 computers are routinely and increasingly used to assist weather observations and forecasting. Developments of information technology and software and miniaturisation of electronic components leads to increased sophistication and accuracy in the areas of radar imagery, surface observations and satellite imagery. Worldwide sharing of weather data is now standard practice.
First high-performance computing facility in NZ
NIWA sets up the first high-performance computing facility, which includes a supercomputer (FitzRoy) to deal with all the data related to NIWA’s various research tasks and also generates weather forecasts for the public.
Automated weather recordings in NZ
From 2000 onwards automatic weather stations systems are developed, allowing for automated weather observations to be reported every minute.
Increased accuracy and sophistication
From 2000, the miniaturisation of electronic components allows for a range of more sophisticated equipment in all fields. Weather forecasting technology such as miniaturised weather stations, electronic barometers and smartphone apps increase accuracy and public access to weather data
Measuring the weather – a timeline
This timeline lets you see the historical developments in technology related to weather monitoring, measuring and forecasting. It also shows how scientific thinking changed over the centuries as modern science developed, and how society has influenced scientific thinking. A full transcript is underneath the timeline.
Measuring the weather – a timeline
This timeline lets you see the historical developments in technology related to weather monitoring, measuring and forecasting. It also shows how scientific thinking changed over the centuries as modern science developed, and how society has influenced scientific thinking. A full transcript is underneath the timeline.
Related content
There are several articles, PLD sessions and videos related to weather, including Extreme weather, Water and weather, Observing clouds and weather, Cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes, Planet Earth and Beyond – Weather and Weather.
The Weather – literacy learning links teacher resource lists selected articles from the Connected and School Journal reading series that support science concepts when teaching about the weather.
The Connected article Sun, wind or rain? covers weather prediction and You can count on it uses a parent’s job as a meteorologist as a context for using data.
Activity ideas
Activities on the SLH that explore aspects of weather include Making a weather vane and compass, Clouds and the weather, Making an anemometer, Making a rain gauge, Making a barometer and Making a thermometer.
Useful links
In Aotearoa New Zealand, most of the information about our weather and climate is made available to the public through NIWA and MetService. NIWA also produces resource materials and activities for schools to support students’ understanding of climate and weather.
This 2021 Stuff news article helps explain why weather forecasts sometimes tell different stories, with a on Aotearoa New Zealand.
Check out this 2018 Stuff news story: Hundred-year-old water meter causes mercury spill in Gisborne Museum.
Listen to this 2023 RadioNZ Our Changing World episode Forecasting in changing times to learn more about how forecasters use physical models, historical data and machine learning to try to look at what might be coming our way, and the things we should all prepare for in an El Niño year in Aotearoa New Zealand.
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